The Legacy Of The Great Depression - 864 Words

1200 to 1450 words The United States, like any other nation, has been bound to cyclical growths and recessions since its foundation. It has enjoyed many incredible expansions and economic booms with little recourse, for the most part. These prosperous times have often been in the wake of the most devastating of times for other nations. However, even a nation as wealthy and strong as the United States could not escape the incredible grip of the Great Depression. No other economic collapse has ever been as severe or as impactful as the Stock Market crash of 1929. This single event would spark the most trying time in this country’s history, and would forever change the way we as a people view strength and stability. The foundation of United States’ economic system and confidence of the people in its establishments would not be fully restored until more than a decade later. Prior to the 1920s, the United States had never seen an economic boom so massive. It had been a simpler era; money was concrete and it was impossible to acquire goods or products without having the physical capital to purchase them. This all changed with the 1920s. Ordinary citizens were no longer bound to hard cash, and could thus obtain a more luxurious lifestyle. Through the advent of credit and buying on margin, anyone could have the opportunity to join the ranks of the elite few. Consequently, prior to the Stock Market Crash of 1929, no other economic collapse in the United States had ever been soShow MoreRelatedThe Legacy Of The Great Depression1957 Words   |  8 Pagessince the new deal. These were a series of programs introduced in 1933 that aimed to restore dignity to its citizens amidst the Great Depression, which began in 1929. After President Kennedy’s tragic and sudden assassination in 1964, President Lyndon B Johnson had the full capacity and authority to implement his own political capital and reforms; this was the idea of a â€Å"great society†. With that said, the 60’s for Americans was a both historical and liberating time to be alive. The Vietnam War, theRead MoreThe Legacy Of The Great Depression3599 Words   |  15 PagesThe election of 1932 focused primarily on the Great Depression, the recent economic crisis that had swallowed the nation. At this time, thirteen million people were unemployed and 774 banks were shutting down annually. Economically unstable, Americans turned to Franklin Delano Roosevelt who claimed, â€Å"better days were ahead† with his New Deal reformation. He promised economic â€Å"recovery, job creation, investment in public works, and civic uplift† (Harvey 88). Immediately upon entering the white houseRead MorePresident Herbert Hoover : The Legacy Of The Great Depression1156 Words   |  5 PagesQuestion: President Herbert Hoover is often undermined and overlooked as an idle predecessor in comparison to the renowned Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Many people believe that it was Hoover’s lack of action that brought America to its knees before the Great Depression. Should Herbert Hoover be defined as the ineffective president accountable for the aftermath of the Stock Market Crash of 1929 or did he actually play an important role in alleviating the economic turmoil, but simply went unrecognized for hisRead MoreEssay on President FDR’s New Deal1042 Words   |  5 Pagestimes in American history. It was the time of the Great Depression. Millions of Americans suffered hardships as the economy was in a free fall. Many Americans were unemployed and lost almost everything they had owned. In 1932, America realized it was time for a change, and elected Franklin Delano Roosevelt in a landslide vote. Roosevelt promised to help end the depression and with his New Deal. The New Deal was Roosevelt’s plan to end the Great Depression. Through increased government spending, FDR enactedRead MoreEssay about The New Deal and the Great Society1175 Words   |  5 Pagesand the Great Society Although the New Deal was established about thirty years before the Great Society was, they both embodied similar characteristics. The origins of these two parts of history clearly resemble each other. Also, the goals of the Great Society largely compare to those of the New Deal. Finally, the New Deal and the Great Society prove to be alike through their lasting legacies. The Great Society resembles the New Deal in its origins, goals, and social and political legacies. TheRead MoreWorld Wars And The Great Depression1262 Words   |  6 Pagesalone. Millions of Americans have the same questions. So, what happened? Were so many of our families separated in the westward expansion that we lost our connections to the past? Were families in such crisis during the World Wars or the Great Depression that mere survival was their only focus? Was there a generation that just wanted to forget the past? Was it the â€Å"live for today† mentality of the ‘60s that deemed it â€Å"old fashioned† to have any roots or history? It was probably a combinationRead MoreHitler s Influence On The World946 Words   |  4 Pagescome true. In spite of his reputation, Adolf Hitler was a great leader who left an important legacy because he brought Germany out of the German Great Depression by helping the unemployed, he implemented cultural and social reform in Germany, and because of his influence, organizations were created to help prevent future disasters from occurring. The German Great Depression took place in the 1930’s, after World War I. The Great Depression had a big effect on Germany because of the large amount ofRead MoreThe Great Depression And The New Deal1177 Words   |  5 Pagesdiscussing how women, blacks, Hispanics, and Native Americans, were impacted by the Depression and the New Deal. I will also be discussing the long-term legacies of the New Deal and the major historical assessments that have been made of the New Deal. I will also be giving my thoughts and views on the assessments that have been made of the New Deal. The New Deal and Minorities The Great Depression was caused by the stock market crash in 1929. This stock market crash put the UnitedRead MoreGerstle s Historiographical Of Mainstream Americanism1327 Words   |  6 Pagesare even engraved on America’s founding documents; some historians argue that this is the reason why American people and their polity are so distinct. Nevertheless, civic nationalism has contradicted or even sometimes reinforced another ideological legacy, â€Å"†¦a racial nationalism that conceives of America in ethno-racial terms, as a people held together by common blood and skin color and by inherited fitness for self-government† (Gerstle 4). This is how Gerstle shows his understanding of nationalism:Read MoreWhat Makes A Name Hilton860 Words   |  4 Pagesof the name Hilton immediately the images of relaxation, luxury and quality spring into your mind. Yet, what is it that put the name Hilton in such high demand when booking a place to stay? Conrad Hilton the fam ous impresario built his timeless legacy from the ground up. From humble beginnings as a general store owners son to the founder of over 500 hotels and resorts spread over 78 different countries, Conrad Hilton redefined the meaning of lodging and hospitality and constructed the expectations

Visual Merchandising Free Essays

Visual Merchandising: Visual Merchandising is very important because the first impression of the product or store on the customer is by visualizing. If the impression is positive then customers attract to the store. A store must have the inviting appearance to the customers. We will write a custom essay sample on Visual Merchandising or any similar topic only for you Order Now Objectives of Visual Merchandising: Objective of visual merchandise is to attract the customers to your business in order to sell the merchandise. The main objective is to make the customers feel comfortable and eager to buy. Essential of Visual Merchandising: * Interior Floor  Design  and Display. * Space and Signage. * Window Display. Tools Use for Visual Merchandising: Audio-Visual Displays. * Decoration and Props. * Signage and Graphics. The presentation in visual merchandising falls into two categories mainly: 1. Exterior Presentations. 2. Interior Presentations. Exterior Presentations: The outlook of a store is a major determinant for a customer. Good exterior presentation attracts attention, creates interest and invites the customer into business. It involves exterior signs, banners and window display. Exterior Signs: A store sign is its â€Å"signature† which tells the customers that what type of the business and what it sells. In less than 10sec the sign must att ract attention. Banners: Banners are used to sales promotion. It should be very colorful and eye catching. Window Display: Some products should be placed on a store’s window. Window display should attract attention, create interest and invite people into the store to purchase goods. New displays indicate new up-to-date merchandise is available. Interior Presentations: Another way of the merchandising is through interior display that effectively show merchandise to the customers. The purpose of doing this is to develop interest for the merchandise. It involves color theme and images, lighting, props and fixtures. Researchers found that 64. % of all purchase decision was made inside a store. Three goals of store are- 1. Motivate the customers to spend money 2. Protect the image of the store 3. Keep expenses to minimum Color and Lighting: Color in a display can catch eye and make people pause and look. The overall color combination can affect the atmosphere of a store. Lighting is essential in c alling attention to merchandise in a display. Customer’s eye is drawn automatically to the brightest area. Props and Fixtures: A display prop is not for sale, it is just used with a product in a display to clarify the function of the product being sold. Merchandise and Fixture Display Recommendations: Goods can be effectively displayed on a variety of fixtures such as tables, cubes, racks and other display cases. Movable shelves from all sides used in self-service retail stores to display merchandise. They can be lined up in stores as grocery or hardware stores. Errors Commonly Occurring in Display: * Too much merchandise * Too little merchandise * Too many props * Poorly selected props * Display changed to seldom * Limited or no display budget * Lack of attention to detail How to cite Visual Merchandising, Papers

THE SPANISH TRAGEDY Essay Example For Students

THE SPANISH TRAGEDY Essay A monologue from the play by Thomas Kyd NOTE: This monologue is reprinted from The Spanish Tragedy. Thomas Kyd. London: J. M. Dent Co., 1898. BEL-IMPERIA: Is this the love thou bearst Horatio?Is this the kindness that thou counterfeits?Are these the fruits of thine incessant tears?Hieronimo, are these thy passions,Thy protestations and thy deep laments,That thou wert wont to weary men withal?O unkind father! O deceitful world!With what excuses canst thou show thyselfWith what dishonor and the hate of menFrom this dishonor and the hate of men,Thus to neglect the loss and life of himWhom both my letters and thine own beliefAssures thee to be causeless slaughtered?Hieronimo, for shame, Hieronimo,Be not a history to aftertimesOf such ingratitude unto thy son.Unhappy mothers of such children then!But monstrous fathers to forget so soonThe death of those whom they with care and costHave tendered so, thus careless should be lost.Myself a stranger in respect of thee,So loved his life as still I wish their deaths.Nor shall his death be unrevenged by me,Although I bear it out for fashions sake,For here I swear, in sight of heaven an d earth,Shouldst thou neglect the love thou shouldst retain,And give it over and devise no more,Myself should send their hateful souls to hellThat wrought his downfall with extremest death.

Pressure Ulcers an Example of the Topic Health Essays by

Pressure Ulcers by Expert Tracy (PHD) | 22 Dec 2016 Pressure ulcers (also known as bed sores, pressure sores or Decubitus Ulcers) is a condition in which areas of skin and associated tissues degenerate and ulcerate, due to application of prolonged pressure on the bony prominences present in the body (Merck, 2005). The skin overlying the bony prominence begins to get necrosed when the portion is compressed (or weight is applied without constant shifting) for long periods of time. Friction and shearing forces could also lead to pressure ulcers (Merck, 2005). The sustained pressure would disrupt the blood supply to the skin and associated tissues leading to tissue hypoxia and formation of pressure ulcers (Mayo, 2006). Need essay sample on "Pressure Ulcers" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed If proper nursing care is provided, there are good chances that pressure ulcers could be prevented (Bergquist, 2007). In nursing care setting, the higher incidences of pressure ulcer may be considered to be a sign of provision of poor quality nursing care (Bergquist, 2007). Pressure ulcers can also develop when an elderly person has been hospitalized for prolonged periods for a general medical problem (Bergquist, 2007). The chances of elders developing pressure ulcers when hospitalized are about 2 to 29 % (Bergquist, 2007). In homes for the aged, the chances of developing pressure ulcers is about 3 to 38 %, and is about 6 to 29 % in those who receive care in their home (Bergquist, 2007). Undergraduates Frequently Tell EssayLab writers: Who wants to write assignment for me? Writers advise: Professionals Are Creating Successful Essays For You! Buy An Essay For College Professional Writer For Hire Cheap Writing Services Cheap Writing Service Reviews Pressure ulcers usually occur in those inpiduals who have developed injury of the spinal cord and also those with paralysis (Mayo, 2006). Inpiduals who follow a sedentary life-style and who a wheelchair bound are at the greatest risk of developing pressure ulcers (Mayo, 2006). The risk of developing pressure ulcers in inpiduals with nerve injury is the highest because they may not be aware of the compression to certain parts of the body. When a spinal cord injury occurs, the inpidual is unable to sense pain or uncomfortable sensations in a particular portion of the body. Hence, the cancers of further damage are very high (Mayo, 2006). The other factors that could be held responsible for pressure ulcers include excessive moisture, emotional stress and presence of comorbid conditions (Bergquist, 2007). In all cases, the nurses should be able to assess the risk for developing pressure ulcers. The Bradens scale is frequently utilized to determine the risk of developing pressure ulcers depending on the presence of certain risk factors (Bergquist, 2007). Pressrue ulcers are more common in inpiduals above the age of 70 years. In such inpiduals, the skin may be slightly atrophic and thin, and has greater chances of getting degenerated when pressure is applied for prolonged periods (Mayo, 2006). In the US, about 1.3 to 3 million people suffers from pressure ulcers (Merck, 2005). Pressure ulcers develop in about 33 % of all inpiduals above the age of 70. Inpiduals who are bedridden, follow a sedentary lifestyle, do not exercise enough, are wheelchair bound, suffer from injuries to the spinal cord or paralysis, etc, are also at a higher rate of developing Decubitus ulcers (Hunter, 1996, pp. 958). Inpiduals who suffer from fractures of the neck of the femur are also bound to develop this disorder. When the ulcers are deep, the chances of complications and fatalities are very high. Some of the common complications that may develop include infection, osteomyelitis and septicemia (Bergquist, 2007). Besides, the chances of the lesion not healing properly or in normal periods of time are quite high. About 50 % of the lesions heal after 4 weeks and about 40 % heal after 6 months (Bergquist, 2007). The other factors that can be held responsible for the development of the ulcers include several disorders which makes movement difficult (such as arthritis, paraplegia and apathy), disorders in which the nerve sensations are reduced, certain disorders affecting the blood vessels (such as arthrosclerosis which may be seen in diabetes, hypertension, high cholesterol levels and smoking), malnutrition, dementia, stroke, corticosteroid use, chronic alcoholism, malignant diseases, etc (Hunter, 1996, pp. 958). The pressure ulcers develop in the region where the bone compresses the overlying skin and the subcutaneous tissues for prolonged periods of time. The lesions begin as a small area of redness, and slowly get converted into a blister. The blister cannot tolerate the pressure and hence ruptures to form erosion (Hunter, 1996, pp. 958). The ulcer should be treated immediately, as it may progress further to involve the deeper layers of the skin. The lesion may get sloughed to form a black eschar. This further gets infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria. Foul odor may be emitted from the affected region (Merck, 2005). In case of septicemia, several constitutional symptoms such as fever, headache, malaise, lymphadenopathy, etc, may be present. Several portions of the body having bony prominences are at a high risk of developing pressure sores such as the sacrum, greater trochanter, calcaneous tuberosity, knees, condyles, toes, coccyx, iliac crest, shoulders, lateral malleolus, ischial tuberosity, etc (Hunter, 1996, pp. 958). The chances of developing pain and tenderness following pressure ulcer varies from 33 to 87 %. The diagnosis of pressure sores is made based on the history, symptoms, signs, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. These include blood tests, X-rays, cultures and skin biopsy. A thorough physical examination is performed to determine the extent and depth of the lesion (Hunter, 1996, pp. 958). Wound culture tests and antimicrobial sensitivity tests are required to determine the causative organism. The bacterial count usually exceeds 100, 000 bacterial cells per gram of tissues. X-rays, bone scans and MRI scans may be required to determine involvement of the underlying bone (Merck, 2006). Urine and Stool tests are also required to determine the presence of incontinence (Mayo, 2006). Biopsy may be required to confirm the diagnosis and rule out the presence of cancer (Mayo, 2006). Firstly, the lesion should be taken care of immediately, as if treating a wound. The dead and the degenerating tissues, along with the slough should be removed and the lesion should be thoroughly debrided using saline along with 0.5 % silver nitrate solution (Hunter, 1996, pp. 958). An antibacterial ointment should be applied over the lesion and a bandage should be placed. If the lesion causes a huge loss of tissues, a skin graft should be transplanted and/or sutures should be placed (Hunter, 1996, pp. 958). Antimicrobial agents may be required either orally or in the form of injections to treat the infection. The cause of pressure ulcers should be treated appropriately (Hunter, 1996, pp. 958). Any potential risk factors should be removed. A soft mattress or cushion should be utilized for sleeping and sitting. The inpidual should consume a balanced diet and should ensure that enough exercises are performed in a day. Whilst sleeping or resting, the inpidual should be turned every few hours to ensure that pressure over certain portions of the skin is not excessive. Nurses should ensure that the skin is kept clean and dry. Moisturizers should be applied to maintain the integrity of the skin. The inpidual should avoid applying pressure on the affected portion of the skin (Cull, 1996, pp. 1101). Any shearing or friction force application should be avoided as these forces tend to slide over the tissues and cause injuries to the skin. The nurses should educate the patients to examine the skin especially where bony prominences are present in order to identify the presence of pressure ulcers. Incontinence should be taken care of adequately. Sedation should be avoided in elders as it may worsen the risk of developing pressure ulcers. Cleanliness of the skin should also be maintained (Bergquist, 2007). References: Bergquist, S. and Rosemary, L. (2007). Prevention of Pressure Ulcers, Retrieved May 21, 2007 Cull, R. E. and Will, R. G. (1996). Diseases of the Nervous System, In. Edwards, C. R. A., Bouchier, I. A. D., s Principles and Practice of Medicine, (17th Ed), Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. Hunter, J. A. A. (1996). Diseases of the Skin, In. Edwards, C. R. A., Bouchier, I. A. D., s Principles and Practice of Medicine, (17th Ed), Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. Lehrer, M. S. (2005). Pressure Ulcers. Retrieved May 21, 2007 The Mayo Clinic (2006). Pressure Ulcers. Retrieved May 21, 2007, from Mayo Website: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/bedsores/DS00570/DSECTION=4 The Merck Manual of Geriatric (2005). Pressure Ulcers. Retrieved May 21, 2007 The Merck Manual (2005). Pressure Ulcers. Retrieved May 21, 2007, from Merck Website: http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec10/ch126/ch126a.html

The rise of Ngo Dinh Diem essays

The rise of Ngo Dinh Diem essays The story of the Vietnam conflict is one that will forever mark an important part of the world's history. The Vietnam conflict divided the world firmly into two camps, supporters of the south and supporters of the north. Ngo Dinh Diem was the president of South Vietnam for several years. During his reign the United States and other nation voiced strong opinions about his rise to power, and the actions he took once he was president. Diem spent his life preparing for that power, and the historical events just before he took over helped cement his ability to install himself as leader, to a nation, that would go down in history as one of the most stubborn and strong nations on earth. His rise to power cumulated in a United States sanctioned overthrow of then Emperor Bao Dai in 1955[1]. He then spent almost a decade at the helm of the nation while practicing oppressive and demanding politics. He cancelled democratic elections to insure that the competition would not be voted in. He was assassinated in 1963[2]. For one to understand how he became as powerful as he did and what allowed him to over through an in place regime one must understand the events that led to his rise in power. It is important to understand the life of Ngo Dinh Diem so that one can begin to understand what drove him to the power he Diem was born in a city called Hue which was the original capital of the Ngyuen Dynasty Vietnam. When he grew into a young man he became a civil servant in the Emperor government of Bao Dai[4]. He was a strong nationalist and was said to speak out as an anti communist throughout his initial adult life. Diem was not a stranger...

Sobeit and So Be It

Sobeit and So Be It Sobeit and So Be It Sobeit and So Be It By Maeve Maddox Jean writes: Could you do a feature on so be it and sobeit? Â  I thought for sure it was always written as three words until a discussion on a court reporters message board came up about a proofreader saying that it should be a one-word word. Sobeit is a word and so be it is a clause. Neither is much used in ordinary conversation or writing, but legal language tends to be on the old-fashioned side. The clause so be it is a subjunctive expression meaning let it be so. Example: Aladdin: I want a huge palace with a thousand servants and a swimming pool. Genie: So be it! Sobeit can be used as conjunction or as a noun. As a conjunction sobeit means provided that, if. Example: I will finish this 800-page novel, sobeit I live long enough. Sobeit can also be used as a noun, as in this example from the OED: Thou answerest me an houre after..like to a Sexton with a Sobeit or Amen. Whether to spell it as one word or write it out as three words depends upon the context. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Farther vs. FurtherTry to vs. Try and30 Nautical Expressions

Social Security Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Social Security - Research Paper Example Social security also provides income for those people who have become disabled and can no longer work and for those spouses and children whose wage earner has passed away. Thesis Statement Social Security is facing a long-term financial problem but it is not a crisis as some are trying to lead everyone to believe. Background Social Security as an Agency The United States was among those lagging behind major developed nations to set up a social security organization. In 1911, Wisconsin was the first state that approved the first state workers' reimbursement law to be held legitimate. It was the time when most Americans assumed the government should have no consideration to bother for the elderly, disabled, or disadvantaged. But such approaches altered during the critical period of Great Depression of the 1930's. Many Americans at this specific point of time sensed economic calamity or failure could outcome from happenings over which workers or government had no control. In 1935, Congr ess passed the Social Security Act. This law became the basis of the U.S. Social Security system. It provided cash benefits only to retired workers in commerce and industry. In 1939, Congress amended the act to benefit wives and dependent children of deceased workers. In 1950, the act commenced to cover numerous farm and domestic working classes, self-employed workers, technical and vocational workers, nonprofessional and many government and local bodies’ employees. Coverage became almost worldwide in 1956, when legal professionals and other professional workers of different fields came under the scheme. Congress further added disability insurance for the special employees to the system in 1956 and thus Medicare was set up in 1965. In the late 1970's, prices increased much faster than wages. This trend caused benefits to rise more rapidly than payroll tax revenues and resulted in a major drain on the Old-Age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund. The law accelerated parts of a p reviously scheduled tax increase and expanded the categories of workers covered under Social Security. It required all federal employees hired after 1983 to join the system. The law also required the participation of about a million employees of nonprofit organizations. The legislation made up to 50 percent of the benefits of some higher-income retired people subject to federal income taxes and gave the resulting revenues to the Social Security trust funds. In addition, the law required a gradual rise in the normal retirement age. From the mid-1960 through the mid-1980, the tax-paying labor force was enlarged by the entry of the baby boom generation that is, the group of people born during a period of high birth rates from 1946 to 1964. Also, low birth rates in the 1920's and 1930's resulted in a relatively small population of retirees in the 1980's and 1990's. Because of these developments and because of the 1983 legislation and strong economic growth Social Security costs as a per centage of earnings subject to the FICA tax declined significantly from 1986 to 1989. This percentage began to rise again in the early 1990's. (Justice, 2005) George Bush Era and social Security George Bush has been working on a proposal to privatize the social

Curriculum evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Curriculum evaluation - Essay Example r focuses on the examination and the evaluation of curriculum applied on the professional education and specifically on the health care support sector. In order to understand the structure and the content of curriculum used in the above sector, it is necessary to refer primarily to the general characteristics of curriculum, the theories developed for curriculum used in various educational contexts as well as the skills required for the appropriate delivery of curriculum in a professional education environment. In accordance with a report published by the Cognitive Behaviour (2008) ‘a social education curriculum has a three-fold purpose: a) to assure that every student is on track through assessment and prevention, b) to assist the proper development through pedagogical study, and c) to remediate inappropriate learning’ (Cognitive Behaviour, 2008, online article). The improvement of educational standards in the health care sector would support the increase of quality of s ervices provided to patients. Therefore, the curriculum used in the specific sector should be carefully reviewed and monitored making sure that all standards set are followed by educators. In the study of Burgess (2004) it is noticed that the curriculum used in the training of social work professionals is not appropriately developed but it rather ‘entails a level of complexity greater than that for many other disciplines’ (Burgess, 2004, 163). On the other hand, it seems that in Britain – like in most developed countries worldwide – the involvement of a person to the health care support is related with specific educational standards: specific qualifications – set by NHS – are required while training is usually provided after the acquisition of qualification – in case that workers in the specific sector need to be informed on the developments of science in the particular field. The design and the development of curriculum in all educational contexts is based on specific criteria.

The role of Intelligence in the formulation of government policies Essay Example for Free

The role of Intelligence in the formulation of government policies Essay Introduction Espionage is the secret collection of information, or intelligence, that the source of such information wishes to protect from disclosure. Intelligence refers to evaluated and processed information needed to make decisions. The term can be used with reference to business, military, economic, or political decisions, but it most commonly relates to governmental foreign and defense policy. Intelligence generally has a national security connotation and therefore exists in an aura of secrecy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Espionage, or spying, is illegal according to national laws. Spying proceeds against the attempts of counter-espionage (or counter-intelligence) agencies to protect the secrecy of the information desired.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   International espionage methods and operations have few boundaries. They have been romanticized in popular fiction and the mass media, but in reality, espionage exists in a secret world of deception, fraud, and sometimes violence. Espionage involves the recruiting of agents in foreign nations; efforts to encourage the disloyalty of those possessing significant information; and audio surveillance as well as the use of a full range of modern photographic, sensing, and detection devices and other techniques of eliciting secret information (see C. S. Trahair, Richard. Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations, 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The intents of this paper are to: (1) trace how espionage started; (2) know the justification and international sanction of intelligence; (3) know the recruitment agents; (4) be aware how espionages are gathered; (5) be acquainted espionage agencies and networks; (6) be informed how espionage during the 19th century and early 20th century; (7) know the role of espionage during World War II and Modern Era; (8) realized how is espionage in politics and industry; (9) learn about the   Espionage Act of 1917; (10) know about Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) as one of the agencies of intelligence and; (11)   know about its implications of modern technology. Background How espionage started?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Intelligence was early recognized as a vital tool of statecraft—of diplomacy or war. Writing almost 2,500 years ago, the Chinese military theorist Sunzi stressed the importance of intelligence. His book The Art of War (c. 500 BC) gave detailed instructions for organizing an espionage system that would include double agents and defectors. Intelligence, however, was haphazardly organized by rulers and military chiefs until the rise of nationalism in the 18th century and the growth of standing armies and diplomacy (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). III. Discussion Justification and International Sanction of Intelligence   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In order to adopt and implement foreign policy, plan military strategy and organize armed forces, conduct diplomacy, negotiate arms control agreements, or participate in international organization activities, nations have vast information requirements. Not surprisingly, many governments maintain some kind of intelligence capability as a matter of survival in a world where dangers and uncertainties still exist. The cold war may have ended, but hostilities continue in parts of Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, the Middle East, and elsewhere. Indeed, the collapse of old political blocs in the late 1980s has even increased international uncertainty and consequent need for information (see Carney, Ralph M. Citizen Espionage: Studies in Trust and Betrayal. 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All nations have laws against espionage, but most sponsor spies in other lands. Because of the clandestine nature of espionage, no reliable count exists of how many intelligence officers—only a small percentage of whom are actually spies—there are in the world. A common estimate is that the United States today still employs some 200,000 intelligence personnel. The number that was generally ascribed to the Soviet intelligence establishment in the 1980s was 400,000, a figure that included border guards and internal security police (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). The recruitment agents   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Today, scores of developed nations have efficient intelligence organizations with systematic programmes for recruiting new agents. Agents come from three main sources: the university world, where students are sought and trained for intelligence careers; the armed services and police forces, where some degree of intelligence proficiency may already have been attained; and the underground world of espionage, which produces an assortment of people, including criminal informers, with relevant experience (see Bungert, Heike Et Al. Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 2003).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Those who do the actual spying, which may involve stealing information or performing disloyal acts of disclosure, are led to this work by various motivations. Greed or financial need is a leading incentive in many cases, but other motivations, such as ambition, political ideology, or nationalistic idealism, can figure importantly: Oleg Vladimirovich Penkovsky, a highly placed Soviet officer, provided valuable information to Western intelligence services in the belief that the West must be warned of danger. H. A. R. (â€Å"Kim†) Philby, the notorious English spy, worked for the Soviet Union on ideological grounds.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Some spies must be carefully recruited and enticed into cooperation; others volunteer. The latter must be handled with extreme caution, as it is common for double agents to be among the volunteers. Double agents are spies who pretend to be defecting, but in reality maintain their original loyalty. Counter-intelligence staffs are always sceptical of volunteers or defectors and restrict their use for positive espionage purposes. In some cases, the most valuable spy of all is the â€Å"agent-in-place†, the person who remains in a position of trust with access to highly secret information, but who has been recruited by a foreign intelligence service; such a spy is known as a â€Å"mole† (see Herrington, Stuart A. Traitors among Us: Inside the Spy Catchers World, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A high-priority espionage target is the penetration of the various international terrorist organizations. If the leadership of such units can be infiltrated by spies, advance knowledge can be obtained of the location and identity of intended victims, the nature of the disguises being used by the hit team, and the secret sources of weapons. Such information could be used to foil terrorist operations. International drug trafficking, it has been asserted, can similarly be thwarted by effective espionage, but the problem is complex, and only limited success has been achieved. How espionages are gathered?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Intelligence work, including spying, proceeds in a five-step process. Initially, what the decision makers need to know is considered, and requirements are set. The second step is collecting the desired information, which requires knowing where the information is located and who can best obtain it. The information may be available in a foreign newspaper, radio broadcast, or other open source; or it may be obtained only by the most sophisticated electronic means, or by planting an agent within the decision-making system of the target area. The third step is intelligence production, in which the collected raw data are assembled, evaluated, and collated into the best possible answer to the question initially asked. The fourth step is communicating the processed information to the decision maker. To be useful, information must be presented in a timely, accurate, and understandable form. The fifth and crucial step is the use of intelligence. The decision maker may choose to ignore the information conveyed, thus possibly courting disaster; on the other hand, a judgment may be made on the basis of information that proves inaccurate (see Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999).The point is that the decision maker must make the final crucial judgment about whether, or how, to use the information supplied. The intelligence process can fail at each or any of these five basic steps. Espionage Agencies and Networks   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The worlds intelligence, espionage, counter-intelligence, and covert action programmes may be said to follow three distinct organizational patterns: the American, the totalitarian (exemplified by the Communist regimes), and the British (parliamentary) systems. Similarities exist among them, yet distinctions are sharp.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the United States the Central Intelligence Agency continues to sit at the corner of an elaborate complex of some dozen separate intelligence organizations. Each has a specific role and a carefully guarded area of operations. The director of central intelligence is both head of the CIA and the presidents principal intelligence adviser. In the latter job the director theoretically coordinates all the separate intelligence units, setting their requirements, budgets, and operational assignments. In reality, many of the major units in the system—such as the Defense Intelligence Agency and the huge National Security Agency/Central Security Service, both part of the Department of Defense—operate in quasi-independence. The National Security Agency, which engages in code making and code breaking, the science of cryptography, is much larger in staff size and budget than the CIA (see Marchetti, Victor and Marks, John D. The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, 2001). The military also maintains a major tactical intelligence capability to assist field commanders in making on-the-spot decisions. Other major units in the US intelligence system include the State Departments Bureau of Intelligence and Research, the Department of the Treasury, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the Drug Enforcement Administration of the Department of Justice. The US model influenced the intelligence structures of those countries where the United States was dominant at the end of World War II, such as West Germany (now part of the united Federal Republic of Germany), Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In contrast to the federated American intelligence structure, the typical totalitarian setup is highly centralized. In the Soviet Union, the power of the KGB pervaded every aspect of national life. Its director was generally a powerful member of the Politburo (the governing political committee of the USSR). The KGB had two chief directorates. The most important was the First Directorate, which was responsible for foreign intelligence gathering. The Second Directorates principal responsibilities involved providing counter-espionage protection to the regime and recruiting foreign agents within the Soviet Union. Its targets included diplomats and journalists stationed in the USSR, foreign students, business people, tourists, and visiting delegations (see Macpherson, Nelson. American Intelligence in War-Time London: The Story of the Oss, 2003).Most Eastern European governments followed the KGB model in their intelligence operations. China, Cuba, and other Communist nations still do.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The third model of intelligence systems is the British, a confederation of agencies coordinated by a Cabinet subcommittee and accountable to the Cabinet and prime minister. The two principal units are the Secret Intelligence Service (often called MI6, signifying â€Å"military intelligence†) and the Security Service (popularly called MI5). These labels reflect the military origins of these services, which are now in the civilian sector. MI6 is similar to the CIA and the KGB in that it carries out espionage, counter-espionage, and covert action overseas. MI5 is charged with domestic counter-intelligence and internal security. Scotland Yard maintains a â€Å"special branch†, which operates as the overt arm of the security service; it makes arrests and offers evidence in espionage cases while MI5 agents remain in the background. A number of specialized units also operate within the British intelligence community. These include the Government Communications Centre (for code making and breaking), the Ministry of Defense intelligence sections, and various Foreign Office intelligence groups. With some national variations, the intelligence services of France, Italy, Israel, and the Commonwealth of Nations countries follow the general British pattern of organization (see Macpherson, Nelson. American Intelligence in War-Time London: The Story of the Oss, 2003). During the 19th century   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Political espionage is thought to have first been used systematically by Joseph Fouchà ©, duc dOtrante, minister of police during the French Revolution and the reign of Napoleon. Under Fouchà ©s direction, a network of police agents and professional spies uncovered conspiracies to seize power organized by the Jacobins and by Bourbon Royalist à ©migrà ©s. The Austrian statesman Prince von Metternich also established an efficient organization of political and military spies early in the 19th century. Better known than either of these organizations was the dreaded Okhrana (Department for Defence of Public Security and Order) of the Russian tsars, created in 1825 to uncover opposition to the regime.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the mid-19th century the secret police of Prussia was reorganized and invested with the duty of safeguarding the external as well as the internal security of the country. The Prussian espionage system played an important part in preparations to unify the German states in the German Empire. It also covered France with a network of about 30,000 agents whose work contributed to the German victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. Not until the latter part of the 19th century, however, were permanent intelligence bureaux created by modern states (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). Early 20th century   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Systematic espionage aided the Japanese in defeating the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. In preparing for World War I the Germans again flooded France with a host of agents, some of whom were disguised as trade representatives, teachers, agricultural labourers, or domestics. The most famous of these agents was Mata Hari, who posed as an Indian dancer in Paris. German agents also engaged in attempts to sabotage American national defense both before and after the US entry into World War I.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Most nations, however, entered World War I with inadequate espionage staffs, and the war was frequently fought on the basis of poor intelligence. The lessons of that war, along with rapid advances in technology, especially in communications and aviation, spurred a major growth in intelligence agencies. This was further stimulated by the advent of Fascist governments in Europe and a military dictatorship in Japan, all of which had expansionist foreign policies and the creation of counter-espionage agencies such as the Gestapo in Nazi Germany. These developments led other, democratic countries to establish counter-espionage systems as well (see Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century. 1999). Espionage during World War II   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   World War II was the great stimulus to intelligence services worldwide. Modern military and communications technology put a premium on accurate and quick information, as well as on efforts to protect the security of sensitive information. Some of the great battles of World War II were actually intelligence and counter-intelligence battles. Only in recent years have some of the exploits, and failures, in this secret war been disclosed. Notable is Operation Double Cross, in which the British captured practically all the German spies in Great Britain during the war and turned them into double agents who sent false information back to Germany. Also, the British and their allies were able to break the German secret code, providing access to many of the enemys secret transmissions (see Sexton Jr., Donal J. Signals Intelligence in World War II: A Research Guide. 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The surprise attack by Japan on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, was a great intelligence success for the Japanese and an intelligence failure for the Americans. That failure stimulated the post-war growth of a massive intelligence apparatus in the United States. Before World War II the United States had virtually no intelligence system; after the war the CIA became world famous for its pervasive international surveillance, joining the MI6, the KGB, the Service de Documentation Extà ©rieure et de Contre-Espionage of France, Israels foreign intelligence agency Mossad, Chinas Social Affairs Department, and numerous other intelligence agencies in a massive network of espionage and counter-espionage efforts (see Sexton Jr., Donal J. Signals Intelligence in World War II: A Research Guide. 1999). Modern Era   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the mid-1970s, as a result of disillusionment with the Vietnam War, the Watergate scandal, and the policies of dà ©tente, many Americans began to question the role of the CIA. Mass-media disclosures of intelligence agency abuses and failures were followed by investigations by presidential commissions and congressional committees, which resulted in new guidelines for secret operations and a new structure for executive and legislative supervision. Controversy over the CIAs role and control remains, however. One result is an ever-increasing amount of public information about intelligence services around the world (see â€Å"Espionage†. Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, pp. 342-347, vol. 5). In Britain, MI5 remained unrecognized by statute until 1989, and MI6 until 1994. Espionage in Politics and Industry   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Intelligence and espionage are terms most commonly associated with national foreign policies, yet secret information is needed to make decisions in politics, commerce, and industry. Political parties have always been interested in the strategic plans of their opponents or in any information that might discredit them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Most large corporate enterprises today have divisions for strategic planning that require intelligence reports. Competitive enterprises are undeniably interested in the plans of their competitors; despite laws against such practices, industrial espionage is difficult to detect and control and is known to be an active tool for gaining such foreknowledge. Many of the tools of government intelligence work are used, including electronic surveillance and aerial photographic reconnaissance, and attempts are even made to recruit defectors (see â€Å"Espionage†. Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, pp. 342-347, vol. 5). Espionage Act of 1917   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Espionage Act of 1917 is a principal United States legislation prohibiting espionage for a foreign country and providing heavy penalties for such activity. As amended in 1940 and 1970, it is still in force.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The 1917 law provided steep fines and imprisonment for collecting and transmitting to foreign power information related to US national defense and for interfering with the recruitment or loyalty of the armed forces. Use of the US mail for material urging treason or resistance to US laws was prohibited; sabotage, especially of trading ships, was subjected to severe penalties; the movement of neutral ships in US waters was regulated (in order to stop such vessels from shipping arms or supplies to an enemy country); and the fraudulent use of passports as well as the unauthorized representation of a foreign government were prohibited. An important amendment to the law, usually called the Sedition Act, was passed in 1918 but repealed in 1921; it forbade spoken or printed attacks on the US government, Constitution, or flag (see â€Å"Intelligence†. New Standard Encyclopedia, pp. 431-437, vol. 7).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the outbreak of public hysteria following the US entry into World War I, the 1917 and 1918 laws permitted about 1,500 trials and prison sentences; freedom of the press was curtailed. In 1919 this led US Supreme Court justices Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., and Louis Brandeis to state the principle, later much cited, that unpatriotic speech and publications were illegal only if they constituted a â€Å"clear and present danger† to national security.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The 1940 revision of the Espionage Act increased its penalties. The application of the law to propaganda was limited by a Supreme Court decision in 1944. During World War II about 160 people were convicted under the Espionage Act. Also under this act, the American Communists Julius Rosenberg and Ethel Rosenberg were convicted of spying and executed in 1953 (see â€Å"Intelligence†. New Standard Encyclopedia, pp. 431-437, vol. 7). Central Intelligence Agency   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), agency of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, created in 1947, together with the National Security Council. The CIA is Americas first permanent peacetime intelligence agency responsible for keeping the government informed of foreign actions affecting the nations interests. It was established by the National Security Act of 1947 and is charged with coordinating all US intelligence activities, as well as such functions and duties related to intelligence as directed by the National Security Council (see Darling, Arthur B. The Central Intelligence Agency: An Instrument of Government, to 1950. 2002). A director and deputy director of the agency are appointed by the president with the consent of the Senate (see Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999). History   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The CIAs original mission was primarily intelligence gathering, but after Communist takeovers in Eastern Europe and mainland China, the National Security Council directed that the agency engage in political, covert psychological, paramilitary, and economic operations. United States participation in the Korean War (1950-1953) placed additional requirements on the CIA to support the combat forces.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the period from 1953 to 1961 the CIA was at the height of its cold war activities, carrying out continuous foreign intelligence, counter-intelligence, political action, and propaganda operations. In late 1961 the CIA was reorganized to put more emphasis on science, technology, and internal management. The agency was heavily committed in the war in South East Asia. In 1963 an Office of National Intelligence Programs Evaluation was established to coordinate community activities; this was replaced in 1972 by an Intelligence Community Staff (see Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence: Evolution and Anatomy, 1999). Activities   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is divided into four main directorates, or branches. The Directorate of Operations conducts covert activities around the world. The Directorate of Science and Technology interprets data gathered from electronic transmissions, spy satellites, and other sources. The Directorate of Intelligence produces analyses for policy makers by synthesizing information from the CIA and other federal agencies. The Directorate of Administration oversees the agencys finances and personnel and monitors internal security.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The activities of the CIA are many and varied. Clandestine collection of vital information that cannot be obtained by any overt means requires recruiting agents who can obtain the needed intelligence without detection. Intelligence reports from all sources are reviewed by analysts who produce studies ranging from basic surveys to estimates of future developments. Current intelligence of major importance is detailed in daily, weekly, or monthly bulletins. Periodic projections concerning key nations are presented as national intelligence estimates (see Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence: Evolution and Anatomy, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The CIA is also responsible for counter-espionage activities. Its mission is to prevent the placement of foreign agents in sensitive US agencies; domestically this work is coordinated with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Covert political operations have ranged from subsidizing friendly foreign politicians, parties, or pressure groups to providing assistance in combating subversion. Paramilitary operations support certain exile forces with training and equipment; one example was the CIAs support of Cuban exiles before and during the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Modern technology has increased the capabilities of intelligence collection. In the 1960s high-altitude aircraft introduced a new era of aerial photography; this was quickly followed by transmissions from space satellites. Similarly, underseas intelligence work was advanced by vessels capable of raising a submarine from great depths (see Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence: Evolution and Anatomy, 1999). Controversy and investigations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All clandestine activities are considered abhorrent by some people. Many, however, recognize secret intelligence collection necessary to protect national security. Generally, people support covert political activities in times of crisis.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The role of the CIA director as the principal US intelligence officer and coordinator of activities of the other agencies has often been in dispute. Over the years frequent proposals have been made to divest the head of the CIA of the coordinating role and assign that function to a member of the White House staff.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The CIA has been investigated a number of times by various task force groups, one of which in 1949 recommended major reorganization of CIA operations. Following the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed a group to analyze the failure.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 1975 the CIA came under extensive Congressional and White House examination. It was found that the agency had been engaged in â€Å"unlawful† domestic spying activities and had been implicated in assassination attempts abroad. As a result of these investigations, permanent Congressional committees were established to oversee CIA operations. By 1980 these committees had exclusive jurisdiction over review of CIA activities (see Marchetti, Victor and Marks, John D. The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   By 1986, however, the agency was involved in a new controversy concerning the secret sale of arms to Iran and the disbursement of monies from the sale to the rebels (known as the Contras) fighting the government of Nicaragua. The late CIA director William J. Casey, among others, was suspected of being implicated in the arms scandal. As the 1990s began, the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the dissolution of the USSR led the CIA to revise its mission and organization to meet changing world conditions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The United States government released the first of three batches of classified documents expected to shed light on relations between Chile and the United States during the 1970s in June 1999. These documents included reports by the Central Intelligence Agency referring to covert operations intended to promote a military coup and overturn the government of President Allende.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There was further criticism for the CIA after the terrorist attacks on the United States of September 11, 2001, when it was accused of not having done enough to warn of, and possibly prevent, the impending disaster. Over the following months the organization was subsequently given extra powers and resources to conduct increased covert operations as part of the war on terrorism; it also began to develop closer ties with the FBI (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). Conclusion Implications of Modern Technology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All forms and techniques of intelligence are now aided by an accelerating technology of communications and a variety of computing and measuring devices. Miniaturized cameras and microfilm have made it easier for people engaged in all forms of espionage to photograph secret documents and conceal the films. Artificial satellites also have an espionage function—that of aerial photography for such purposes as detecting secret military installations. Information held or programmes running on computers are vulnerable to penetration by hackers, whether acting independently or for other bodies. The vanguard of these developments is highly secret, but it is known that telephones can be tapped without wires, rooms can be bugged (planted with electronic listening and recording devices) without entry, and photographs can be made in the dark. Of course this same technology is used in countermeasures, and the competition escalates between those seeking secret information and those trying to protect it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In foreign embassies in sensitive areas, confidential discussions routinely take place in plastic bubbles encasing secure rooms, to protect the confidentiality of information. Intelligence agencies have long been known to be staffed with expert lip readers. Privacy of communications remains under constant assault by technological developments that offer threats to, but perhaps also promises for, human progress. References C. S. Trahair, Richard. Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations, 2004. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999. Oxford University Press, New York. Carney, Ralph M. Citizen Espionage: Studies in Trust and Betrayal. 2001. Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT. Bungert, Heike Et Al. Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 2003. Frank Cass. London. Herrington, Stuart A. Traitors among Us: Inside the Spy Catchers World, 1999. Presidio Press, Novato, CA. Marchetti, Victor and Marks, John D. The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, 2001. Dell, New York. Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999. Praeger, Westport, CT. Sexton Jr., Donal J. Signals Intelligence in World War II: A Research Guide. 1999. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. Darling, Arthur B. The Central Intelligence Agency: An Instrument of Government, to 1950. 2002. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA. Macpherson, Nelson. American Intelligence in War-Time London: The Story of the Oss, 2003. Frank Cass, London. Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999. Praeger, Westport, CT. â€Å"Espionage†. Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, pp. 342-347, vol. 5. â€Å"Intelligence†. New Standard Encyclopedia, pp. 431-437, vol. 7. Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence: Evolution and Anatomy, 1999. Praeger, Westport, CT.

Roanoke Island :: essays research papers

In 1584, explorers Phillip Amanda and Arthur Barlowe were the first people to set eyes on Roanoke Island. It is explained to be characterized by thick marshlands and stands of live oaks teeming with wildlife. The explorers were sent there by Sir Walter Raleigh. HE was a poet soldier and a statesman. The trip was for one specific reason, to search for an ideal location for settlement. The queen was very pleased about what was being done. She was so please that she granted Raleigh a patent for all the lands he could occupy. He called the new land Virginia in honor of the Virgin Queen. Raleigh recruited 117 men and women for a permanent settlement. When the people had got there they discovered that the Roanoke Indians had killed 15 men. They were forced to stay. On August 18 1587 Eleanor Dare gave birth to a girl. She named her Virginia. She was the first child to be bore on the American soil. The new land needed supplies in order to stay alive so John White left for Brittan. Little did he know that he would never see his family again. He returned in two years eager to see his family back on the island but he never found anyone. He had only found a carving which read â€Å"craotok â€Å". That meant that they had gone 50 miles up Maine. There was a terrible storm and he was forced to go back to Brittan. The people of Roanoke were never found for they had mysteriously disappeared. Raleigh had given up hope for settlement, but in 1591 he had his hopes high again. He sent another expedition to America but it had failed. In 1595 he decided to go for himself. He ended up on Guiana instead of Virginia. 15 years later he tried once again and failed. He tried again in 1603. This time he sent Bartholomen Gilbert. He and his crew were killed by Indians. After that tragic incident. Raleigh could no longer try anymore, because later he was imprisoned by the new king, King James I. Roanoke Island :: essays research papers In 1584, explorers Phillip Amanda and Arthur Barlowe were the first people to set eyes on Roanoke Island. It is explained to be characterized by thick marshlands and stands of live oaks teeming with wildlife. The explorers were sent there by Sir Walter Raleigh. HE was a poet soldier and a statesman. The trip was for one specific reason, to search for an ideal location for settlement. The queen was very pleased about what was being done. She was so please that she granted Raleigh a patent for all the lands he could occupy. He called the new land Virginia in honor of the Virgin Queen. Raleigh recruited 117 men and women for a permanent settlement. When the people had got there they discovered that the Roanoke Indians had killed 15 men. They were forced to stay. On August 18 1587 Eleanor Dare gave birth to a girl. She named her Virginia. She was the first child to be bore on the American soil. The new land needed supplies in order to stay alive so John White left for Brittan. Little did he know that he would never see his family again. He returned in two years eager to see his family back on the island but he never found anyone. He had only found a carving which read â€Å"craotok â€Å". That meant that they had gone 50 miles up Maine. There was a terrible storm and he was forced to go back to Brittan. The people of Roanoke were never found for they had mysteriously disappeared. Raleigh had given up hope for settlement, but in 1591 he had his hopes high again. He sent another expedition to America but it had failed. In 1595 he decided to go for himself. He ended up on Guiana instead of Virginia. 15 years later he tried once again and failed. He tried again in 1603. This time he sent Bartholomen Gilbert. He and his crew were killed by Indians. After that tragic incident. Raleigh could no longer try anymore, because later he was imprisoned by the new king, King James I.

Prepare to teach in the lifelong learning sector Essay

The following are headings for broad areas students will have to research to show evidence of competence in PTLLS. GROUP A: Roles and responsibilities and relationships in lifelong learning GROUP B 1: Understanding inclusive learning and teaching in lifelong learning GROUP B 2: Using inclusive learning and teaching approaches in lifelong learning GROUP D: Principle of assessment in lifelong learning Each group (Group A, Group B1, Group B2 and Group D) is made up of sub-headings and questions or â€Å"statements of competence†. Group: Group A, Group B1, Group B2 and Group D Sub-headings: (Example) (1.Understand own role and responsibilities in lifelong learning) Questions or â€Å"Statements of competence†: (Example) (1.1 Summarise key aspects of legislation, regulatory requirements and codes of practice relating to own role and responsibilities). Writing Essays and Referencing: Students must provide responses in essay form to each of these questions or â€Å"statements of competence (always starting with 1.1). The recommended word count for each essay is 200 words. Students do not need to worry if they exceed this word count or if they go under it by a few words on a few questions. It is important that a student does not â€Å"fixate† on word counts, but, rather that he or she focuses on the quality of their responses.  Realistically, essays should not fall under the recommended word count too often or by too much when students conduct thorough research and provide satisfactory evidence of competence. Research of topics must be demonstrated with both in-text references (short form) within individual essays (1.1, 1.3, 2.2, etc.) and bibliographies (long form) at the end of each group. In-text references can be placed at the beginning, middle or end of essays. The bibliography provides a more comprehensive list of all book or internet references that the student used to research the questions or â€Å"statements of competence†. Ultimately, the student has to decide how much research he or she thinks is sufficient to gain a better understanding of teaching and learning concepts. Realistically, some form of in-text referencing would probably be required in, at least, one out of two essays on average to show sufficient evidence of research. GROUP – A: Roles and responsibilities and relationships in lifelong learning 1. Understand own role and responsibilities in lifelong learning 1.1 Summarise key aspects of legislation, regulatory requirements and codes of practice relating to own role and responsibilities My role as a Lifelong learning professional is to ensure legislative requirements are met. Some of these legislations are generic and affect all who teach, whereas some are subject (or environment) specific. (Gravells 2012:19-22) These legislations include but not limited to the following: Awarding organisation guidelines for delivering and assessing my subject Criminal Records Bureau(CRB) Clearance Data Protection Act 2003 Equality Act 2010 Health and Safety 1974 Institute for Learning(IfL) Code of professional practice 2008 Organisational guidelines such as dress code and punctuality My key responsibility is to ensure my workplace have a current copy of my CRB as this clearly gives me the right to come in contact with children, young and  vulnerable adults. It’s beneficial to become a registered member of the IfL and abide by its codes and conduct as well as my or company’s organisational procedures. This Code was developed by the profession for the profession and it outlines the behaviours expected of members for the benefit of learners, employers, the profession and the wider community. The Equality Act (2010), which harmonises some 20 previous pieces of Equalities legislation, is important within the lifelong learning sector and helps ensure accessibility to learning with a view to equality and diversity. Under the Health and Safety at Work etc Act (1974), negligence by an individual can lead to their personal prosecution, not just the organisation they work for. HSE at work requires me to take reasonable care of my health and safety and that of others who may be affected by what I do at work, cooperate with my employers on HSE matters and take necessary trainings especially training relating to me field which is Science. Also inform my employers of any concern I have relating to health and safety. As Gravells says: â€Å"Learners are entitled to learn in a safe and healthy Environment† (Gravells 2012:29). The Copyright Designs and Patents Act (1988) are relevant in a teaching environment. The materials I use to teach learners must either be produced by me, or I must ensure that I and or my organisation have permission to use such materials. Another important piece of legislation to consider is the Data Protection Act (2003). This is important because I will have access to students’ personal data which I shouldn’t share with anyone or external organisation without authorisation from my employer and permission from my student in question. 1.2 Analyse own responsibilities of promoting equality and valuing diversity Equality is about rights of students to have access to, attend, and participate in their chosen learning experience. This should be regardless of ability and/or circumstances. Diversity is about valuing and respecting the differences in students, regardless of ability and/or circumstances, or any other individual characteristics they may have.(Gravells 2012:17) As a teacher, I will work in ways that embrace diversity and celebrate equality according to Equality Act of 2010. I will treat all students fairly, seek to create and promote an inclusive culture for all students. I will ensure equal access to opportunities to enable students to fully participate in learning process. You must not allow any form of discrimination in your classroom or learning situation. Not only is it morally wrong, it is likely to be illegal (Reece and Walker, 2007:295). I will ensure learning materials or resources that I intend to use in lessons do not discriminate against any individual or groups. I will also ensure there is no discrimination or any form of bullying in my classroom; this may include teasing, name calling etc â€Å"Equality, whilst driven by legislation, should develop the culture and ethic of wanting to meet the needs of all learners.† (Wilson, 2008, p.27) .I will ensure that all my learners have the opportunity to contribute to the learning process using different learning methods and preferences, different assessment styles while taking learners abilities and disabilities into cognizance. 1.3 Evaluate own role and responsibilities in lifelong learning Primarily my role as a teacher is to help my students achieve their chosen programme. With the understanding that learners have varying learning needs; I will use the eelements of Teaching and Learning Cycle (identifying needs, planning learning, enabling learning, assessing learning and quality assurance and evaluation) to cater for their preferred learning styles. Carrying out initial assessment will help me to identify my students’ needs, as well as my needs and my organisation needs. This will help me identify and avoid triggers that might cause barriers and challenges to learning. My findings during the initial assessment will also guide me while preparing my scheme of work (SOW) and lesson plan and I will do all this within the specifications and guidelines given by the awarding body. The scheme of work  and lesson plan is to promote equality, recognize diversity, encourage inclusive learning and take into consideration the importance of health and safety of the learners. In order stay current and up to date with my specialist subject and continuously improve my teaching practice, I will attend trainings regularly both internally (INSET) and external trainings organised by Awarding bodies and other government agencies, I will also join an online discussion forum relating to my subject. I will also maintain proper records in terms of attendance and assessment data showing students level and progression. 1.4 Review own role and responsibilities in identifying and meeting the needs of learners Based on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory (1962) as stated in Reece and Walker (2007:77): The physical (comfort requirements) can be met by providing adequate breaks, ensuring comfort, arranging seats according to needs and being alert to heating and ventilation requirements; It’s important for me as a teacher to identify the needs of my learners with the intention to meeting these needs. Learners’ needs can be social, physical, intellectual, cultural or emotional. Examples of these needs include dyslexia, language barrier, financial, health or personal problems. To identify my learners’ needs, I will carry out an initial assessment to identify individual strengths and weaknesses, background, achievement level in relation to the programme, level of literacy, numeracy and information technology with any special learning support. This process is also known as the diagnostic assessment. Also I administer the visual, auditory, read and write and kinaesthetic questionnaires to diagnose learners preferred learning styles. Outcome of VARK questionnaires will guide me in lesson planning, resources, activities and assessment method. I will use different teaching methods to accommodate all learners. As a science teacher, I will use video clips because it gives students the chance to see how science applies to everyday living. Carrying out practical and projects also allows my students to demonstrate their understanding of what they have learnt. I will encourage buddy system and peer high and low ability students together in groups so they can challenge and motivate one another. I will support an English as Additional Language (EAL) student by providing dictionaries, propose extra literacy lessons to help student improve their ability to speak, read and write English confidently. If learners’ needs are not met, it will have huge and negative impact on my students’ ability to benefit from my lessons and so I will make reasonable adjustments in order to accommodate all identified needs and where necessary refer students to get specialist help. I will also seek to work with the SEN department. 2. Understand the relationships between teachers and other professionals in lifelong learning 2.1 Analyse the boundaries between the teaching role and other professional roles The boundaries would be: Maintaining professional relationships Taking care with communication methods (and increasingly social media use) Deadlines and targets Demands from managers Lack of own specialist knowledge and skills Lack of resources Personal issues and professional concern Professionalism requires us to maintain appropriate standards and fulfill our responsibilities to learners, institution and colleagues (Francis and Gould, 2009:10) In other to maintain professional relationships with students, I will ensure  that I adhere by codes and conducts of IfL and my organisation policy. If I have concerns regarding a student, it’s best not to get involved personally but to share my concern with appropriate department or personnel. . For example I have a student in a financial difficulty; I will refer such students to seek specialist help and will not seek to get personally involved in solving any problem that this is not directly related to my course. Also in giving support, I will ensure I adhere to equality and diversity legislation and not show favoritism. I will also abstain from engaging in social networking with my student and will keep all form of communication formal. Demands from managers, attending meetings, meeting deadline and targets can be time consuming and have the tendency to eat into time I need to prepare for my lessons. I will seek to have flexibility in demands on my time in this regard so I can attend meetings and do other duties outside the classroom. I can also seek for Admin support in order to address some of the boundaries highlighted. Lack of resources lack can be sorted by getting Admin support in making orders and ensuring resources are bought and delivered in time for lessons. 2.2 Review points of referral to meet the needs of learners Learners will have varying needs depending on their backgrounds and their current circumstances. This might be long or short time based. These needs could be insufficient literacy skills, fear of Information Technology, lack of confidence, language barriers, and transport problems. In a case where I have a student who comes late or has a poor attendance record, I will seek to understand why his attendance is poor. If it’s a case of unmotivated student, I will try and give him one-to-one by creating an Individual lesson plan to support and motivate him more so that he’s eager to come for lessons. However if this student is having financial problem, I will refer him to get specialist help or student welfare services. I will recommend approved centres to learners who need to boost their confidence level and improve their IT skills. In a case where I have a student with language barrier and who lacks confidence, I will seek for ways to promote inclusion by assuring such a student that he/she has the right to participate and learn just like others regardless of background. I will also recommend trusted agencies that help people to improve their English speaking abilities. 2.3 Evaluate own responsibilities in relation to other professionals For any organisation to run successfully and smoothly, all workers will need to fulfil their roles and responsibilities. As a teacher my responsibility can be broken down into individual, team and organisational. I am aware that the way and manner by which I carry out my responsibilities directly impacts on my colleagues and how they fulfil their responsibilities as well. My individual responsibility is to make sure I leave the classroom clean and tide so my next colleague will find it ready for lessons. I understand also that I might need to meet with parents/carers of my students and give them support and assurance regarding the child’s progress in lessons. My team responsibility is to share ideas and resources with me colleagues and this can be achieved by having shared folders for resources and ideas. Being able to work as part of a team is a natural and important aspect of the teaching role, I will be willing to support colleagues by agreeing to do last minute cover for someone who is indisposed. I carry out my organisation duties for example by ensuring I mark registers promptly as this enables attendance team to have accurate records and do their duties as well. It’s important to communicate needs and requirements on time to others. For example as a I’m training to be a science teacher I will need to let the technicians know what I will need to run my lessons and time and quantity needed. I will also need to work with reprographics in other to have printed materials ready for lesson. 3. Understand own responsibility for maintaining  a safe and supportive learning environment 3.1 Explain how to establish and maintain a safe and supportive learning environment Learners need to feel safe and valued before they can fulfil their potential for leaning (Wallace 2011:96). As a teacher it’s important that I create a safe and supportive learning environment in order to optimise my students learning potential. As a science teacher, Health and safety is high priority for me and my students. In order to create a safe environment, I will ensure that my classroom is neatly arranged and all equipment are safely stored away. I will give clear instructions to technicians regards what resources are needed for my lessons and when this will be. Also I will ensure proper checks; testing and maintenance are carried out periodically on all equipments and dates record kept. I will not allow or ask students to carry or move hazardous materials without proper protective clothing e.g. wearing goggles, gloves and lab coats where necessary. Under no circumstance will I move or ask students to move heavy equipments. I’ll create a supportive environment by agreeing ground rules with students, stating behavioural expectation at start of lesson and I will organise an inclusive classroom sessions to accommodate all learning needs including a seating plan that address needs. I will encourage active involvement from all and give regular feedback. I will encourage peer support as this allows students to keep in touch outside sessions. 3.2 Explain how to promote appropriate behaviour and respect for others A good first impression will help establish a positive working relationship with your students. The way you dress, act, respond to questions, offer support etc, will also influence your students (Gravells 2012:10). The teacher can themselves provide a model of appropriate behaviour (Wallace, 2007:79). I will seek to promote appropriate behaviour and respect for my students by agreeing and establishing specific ground rules. These will include: Arriving early on my part to ensure environment is appropriate and my students arriving punctually for lessons Returning marked work within agreed time scales Remaining impartial in any disputes Using a variety of inclusive teaching and learning approaches With my colleagues and organisation I will: Adhere by dress code and appear for lessons formally and appropriately dressed Preparing adequately for my sessions Liaising and working with others in a professional manner I will model appropriate behaviour and respect others by sticking to ground rules and IfL’s Code of Professional Practice (2008). For example I will not bring my mobile phone into lesson and will ensure students turn off their phones or put in silent mode when in my class. I will prepare adequately for my lessons and include all learning needs. I will seek to be polite with my colleagues and settle any grievances professionally Book References: Gravells, A., 2012. Preparing to Teach in the Lifelong Learning Sector. 5th ed. London: Learning Matters. Gravells, A., 2012. Passing PTLLS Assessments 2nd ed. London: Learning Matters. Cowley,S 2010 Teaching Skills for Dummies (Kindle Edition) UK Edition Reece, I and Walker , S (2207) Teaching , Training and Learning: A Practical Guide 6th ed. Tyne & Wear: Buisness Education Publishers Websites: Health and Safety Act at Work (1974): http:// www,hse.gov.uk/legislation/hswa.htm Institure for Learning: http://www.ifl.ac.uk/ Theories of Learning: www.learningand teachcing.info/learning Data Protection Act (2003) http://regulatorylaw.co.uk/Data_Protection_Act_2003.html Copyright Designs and Patent Act (1988) http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1998/TKpga_19880048_en_1.htm www.cyberessays.com [last accessed 03/12/13 @ 12:50] www.studymode.com [last accessed 03/12/13 @ 12:50] GROUP B1 Understanding inclusive learning and teaching in lifelong learning 1.1 Analyse learning and teaching strategies used in own specialism As a science teacher it’s important that I bring alive my topics and make it real, informative, relevant and fun. I will use several teaching strategies to achieve this. These strategies are: Demonstration, Discussions, Online learning, Group work, Individual work, Project work, Presentations, Research, Simulations, Use of ICT. These strategies have their strengths and limitation so usually a combination is used when teaching a lesson. My teaching strategy will depend on the topic I’m teaching. It is possible to use a combination of strategies while teaching a topic. In order to teach my class a topic on ‘Electricity’, I will start by asking my students to tell me how many electrical appliances (TV, Game consoles, Freeview box etc) they have in their homes and how often they use them. This discussion will be an ice breaker because everyone loves their gadget and love to talk about them. This will then lead to talk about how power is transferred and how to measure power usage. I will ask them to carry out further research and find out the power of several electrical appliances in the home and estimate the cost of using these appliances in a typical week. Use of ICT is embedded in most topics because students are usually required to carry our further research and submit documents using word processor or PowerPoint. Some topics will also require dividing the class into a group so they can work together and build team work skills. 1.2 Evaluate the effectiveness of approaches to learning and teaching in own Specialist area in meeting needs of learning I will use a combination of teaching approaches in order to meet learning needs. I will use a blended approach of teaching in a classroom with support and activity via Virtual Learning Environment (VLE). Using demonstration for practical tasks incorporate all learning styles. Students can watch me carry out a science experiment (visual),listen to an explanation(aural),read instructions on a handout and make note(read and write) and then practise the task(kinaesthetic).This multi-modal learning styles is effective in meeting needs of individual. I will use interactive white board and projectors in all my lessons. And this enables me to include all learning needs and cater for all learning abilities. . I will set differentiating tasks for my students according to their abilities. Higher level students will be stretched and challenged while lower ability students will be motivated and enable to catch up. At the end of a topic, I will either give a quiz and puzzle, assignments or group project as a form of summative assessment. This will help me determine if the objective of the lesson has been achieved, identify gaps and eras to improve on or repeat. 1.3 Evaluate aspects of inclusive learning Inclusive learning is about involving all my students during session, treating them equally and fairly and not directly or indirectly excluding anyone for any reason.( Gravells, 2012 :49) Inclusive learning involves taking into account any individual learning needs and offering appropriate support. Inclusion in an educational context has been defined differently by different people. Wilson (2008:96) states that inclusion simply means available to all while (Tummons 2010 :93) states inclusive practise can be defined as an approach to teaching and learning that endeavours to encourage the fullest participation of learners. This is action supported by Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (1977 – 1986, Cited http://www.education.com/reference/article/social-cognitive-theory/). This theory states that learning occurs in a social context as much of what is learned is done so through observation of others. By arranging seating in such a way as to create clear sight lines and simple social communication a teacher will allow students to form this social bond to facilitate learning? I will endeavour to take into account that my learners have different abilities and needs and use different teaching strategies to meet the individual needs of your students (preferred learning styles, attention spans, maturity, experience, ability levels. I will also be flexible and ready to make a change if and where necessary. 2. Understand how to create inclusive learning and teaching in lifelong learning 2.1 Analyse inclusive approaches to learning and teaching Inclusive learning is about making sure that every learner in the classroom has their needs identified and met. It is about realising that every learner will have specific individual needs and it is the job of the teacher to accommodate the needs of all of their learners. Booth et al. (2000) state ‘Inclusion is seen to involve the identification and minimising of barriers to learning and participation’ (Booth et al., 2000: 13). One approach to inclusive learning is having additional support for the learners with Special educational needs (SEN). This can be in the form of a teaching assistant or in some more severe cases a carer. Also some students with behavioral challenges also need support and this might be teaching them in a smaller group or having reduced timetable. Additional support can be used to do several things. The support a teaching assistant provides is to enable the learner to either do the same work the rest of the class is doing but with extra support with ideas, writing or just a general confidence boost. Teaching assistants can also be used to take the pupils with SEN as a separate group and do work that has been  differentiated by the teacher. This is a way of enabling the learner to feel they have achieved and not worry about what the rest of the class thinks. The use of the teaching assistant is vital for many learners. It enables the learner to achieve the academic levels they need and often exceed what they thought they could achieve. However, it could be argued that if a child is given too much individual support then they will learn to expect it and be reluctant to work without support. The other main area to focus on is differentiation. If a teacher is able to correctly identify the different levels and needs of their class members and then differentiate accordingly then this is going to be one of the most effective ways of creating inclusive learning. 2.2 Analyse how to select resources to meet the needs of learners Resources can help aid learning. Having identified learners’ needs; it is crucial to select resources that meet these needs. Resources can come in many forms and used in many ways, so it important to ensure that resources are accessible to all learners and also depending on desired lesson outcome, resources must be select to aid lesson delivery. Examples of these resources are: Interactive white boards Overhead projectors Physical resources, models and apparatus Textbooks Worksheet, puzzles and crossword Audio/visual/digital equipment Computerised presentations Flip charts paper and pen Handout I will make sure printed resources like handouts are written in 12 point text and also use easy to read font, such as Arial, this will help learners with  the reading of text. Also you can make sure that the text used on PowerPoint presentations is large enough to read from where learners will be sitting. Learners with visual impairment can have print versions made specific to meet their need like having prints in A3 and big font like size 48 or providing Braille where needed. By making documents available in larger fonts or in Braille you are ensuring that your session is inclusive. Continuous assessment of students also helps to determine how effective the resources are and if there is need for a change. 2.3 Explain how to create assessment opportunities that meet the needs of learners Assessment opportunities can arise at any time during teaching sessions. It can be at the beginning (initial), during (formative) or at the end (summative) of lesson. Assessment methods include ice-breakers, multiple-choice test, assignment essays, group discussions, question and answer session, presentation, role-play and demonstration. The teaching method ,aims and objectives of the programme will determine the assessment method to employ but all learners will be given the opportunity to be assessed in a way to determine where their strengths and weaknesses lie; and to create ways for improvement while preparing them for formal examination conditions. Initial assessment at the start of a lesson could be in form of an ice breaker question or discussion; this gets everyone involved and makes it possible for me to gauge their levels and understanding of topic to be discussed. In science lessons, students have opportunity to have a practical session which helps learner to display their theoretical understanding of a topic. This allows me to observe them and also explain better if anyone is struggling. Question and answer session after a topic for instance, will create assessment opportunity where the needs of the learners can be determined. In this session, students’ knowledge of the subject will be tested and the answers given by learners will determine whether learning is taking place or there is need for improvement. Also by delivering mock or practice tests, I will prepare my students for formal assessments which lead to an accredited qualification. 2.4 Review how to provide opportunities for learners to practice their literacy, language, numeracy and ICT skills. There are different avenues available to provide opportunities for learners to practice their literacy, language, numeracy and ICT skills. Literacy: reading and writing Language: Listening, speaking Numeracy-approximation, estimations, calculations and measurements ICT- use of emails, web-based research, word processing or assignments and reports, using spreadsheet, database s and presentation I can give my students opportunity to practise their literacy skills in science lessons by asking them to read from text book and make notes; languages skills can be practised by encouraging group discussions and talking about their understanding of lesson taught. Numeracy can be practised by giving students mathematical exercise which involves calculations. Use of ICT is practised by encouraging web-based research, use of emails, word processing or assignments and reports, using spreadsheet, database s and presentation. I will create opportunities to practise all these skills as it relates to my lessons. While teaching a topic on ‘the Laws of Motion’ for example, I will encourage my students to read from the display on the board, I will encourage discussion of how these laws can be related to in real life. I  will test numeracy skills by giving problem solving tasks which involves calculations and opportunity for ICT skills can be by giving web address relating to topic taught and asking students to do web based research. 3. Understand how to create a motivating learning environment 3.1 Explain how to engage and motivate learners in an inclusive learning environment Learners should be motivated to have an exciting learning experience; they should also be engaged to make the subject involving, this can be achieved by using varied teaching and learning approaches. Active approaches rather than passive should be used for example group work, discussions, practical task and peered activities. If we are to be effective in our teaching, all learners should feel part of and engaged in the particular session (Francis and Gould,2009:73). My initial approach in engaging my student will be to have an open discussion and value everyone’s contribution, giving praise to all contributors. I will also give practical tasks and peered activities Science is an interesting topic but some students find it daunting. I’ll seek to bring the fun part out at the start of lesson. This will include showing video clips relating to topic to be taught and having a discussing thereafter. In order to teach a topic on Speed and Motion, I will show clips of Formula 1 car race, this I believe will get everyone interested in the lesson. Learners have different skills and abilities and so they feel valued and motivated when teachers employ methods that suit their abilities. Also recognising student’s involvement and achievement in lessons and giving praise and encouragement helps motivation. 3.2 Explain how to establish ground rules with learners to promote respect for others Ground rules are boundaries, rules and conditions within which students can safely work and learn .If they are followed they should promote respect for others and ensure the session run smoothly (Gravells 2012: 64). These grounds rules can be: Arriving on time and returning from break on time Following health and safety regulations Not eating or drinking during session Respecting other peoples opinion Switching off mobile phones and other electronic devices In establishing ground rules, I will work together with my students by a process of negotiation to agree on the rules. This process will give a sense of ownership and responsibility to the students and enable them recognise what is acceptable and what is not. I will also make them aware of school policy regards appropriate and acceptable conduct in lesson. I will also advice them not to make personal, racist or sexist comments. The ground rules must displayed clearly throughout the teaching area and can be revised or updated to suit the purpose of a peaceful learning environment Enabling your students to discuss and agree the ground rules allows for negotiation and understanding of the boundaries, rules and conditions in which to effectively work and learn. It also enables them to begin working together as a group and encourages aspect such as listening, compromise and respect for each other. 3.3 Review ways to give constructive feedback to motivates learners Feedback is an essential element for everyone. Feedback is a useful tool for indicating when things are going in the right direction. Giving feedback is an exercise you perform again and again as a teacher. Feedbacks should be constructive and not demoralise students. My objective when giving feedback is to provide guidance by supplying information in a  useful manner, either to support effective behaviour, or to guide someone back on track toward successful performance. Feedback can be given informally during a session and or formally after marking an assignment. Feedbacks can be verbal, written or electronically. One of the theories of constructive feedback is the ‘Praise sandwich’ feedback. This involves delivering feedback by praising, offering specific constructive criticism and then closing off with more praise. In other words, it is ways of sandwiching constructive criticism between two praises. After giving a formal feedback, I will offer support and guidance to my student. This will be by pointing out how to achieve their target grade or how to improve in terms of behaviours and also recommend specialist help if needed. And if needed also meet with parents/carer so support can come from home as well. Book References: Gravells, A., 2012. Preparing to Teach in the Lifelong Learning Sector. 5th ed. London: Learning Matters. Wilson, L., 2008. Practical Teaching: A Guide to PTLLS & CTLLS. Hampshire: Cengage Gravells, A., 2012. Passing PTLLS Assessments 2nd ed. London: Learning Matters. Cowley,S 2010 Teaching Skills for Dummies Kindle Edition UK Edition Websites: www.cyberessays.com [last accessed 03/12/13 @ 12:50] www.studymode.com [last accessed 03/12/13 @ 12:50] GROUP B2: Using inclusive learning and teaching approaches in lifelong learners *Do not answer questions 1.1 to 2.5 (Evidence of competence shown in Micro-teach. 1. Be able to plan inclusive learning and teaching sessions 1.1 Plan a session for learning and teaching that meets the needs of learners 1.2 Justify the selection of approaches to meet the needs of learners 2. Be able to deliver inclusive learning and teaching sessions 2.1 Demonstrate inclusive learning and teaching approaches to engage and motivate learners 2.2 Demonstrate the use of appropriate resources to support inclusive learning and teaching 2.3 Use assessment methods to support learning and teaching 2.4 Communicate with learners to meet their needs and aid their understanding 2.5 Provide constructive feedback to learners 3. Be able to evaluate own practice in delivering inclusive learning and teaching 3.1 Review own approaches to delivering inclusive learning and teaching I started my presentation by introducing myself. Pronunciation of my name can be tricky, so I used it as an ice breaker by getting everyone to have a go at pronouncing my name; this created a friendly and receptive atmosphere after which the students also introduced themselves. By the end of this, the class was ready for my presentation. I started off by agreeing ground rules with my class. I then introduced a topic in Physics: ‘Laws of Motion’ which my presentation was going to be based on. In order to give an inclusive learning experience, I assessed the students’ literacy skills by asking them to read from the PowerPoint presentation. In essence I used the VARK technique through the presentation. I also demonstrated the 1st law of motion by using a cup on the table to illustrate this law. I gave out handouts which enabled the students to see  and follow the progression of the session. I allowed students to ask me questions during the presentation and I also assessed the students understanding of the topic by giving them few questions to answer at the end of the session. I gave them specific time to complete the question individually after which we all answered the questions together. At this time there were opportunities for students to give their answers. In conclusion, I would say spending time to prepare for the session was key and on the day I gave a clear introduction of the topic and the aim of the session. I also used variety of resources during the session i.e. PowerPoint, flip chart, handouts. My limitation was that I gave out the handouts a bit late and I did not ask enough open questions during the session. 3.2 Analyse how own inclusive learning and teaching practice can be improved to meet the needs of learners. In order to improve my presentation next time, I will firstly carry out initial assessment by asking if anyone has prior knowledge of the topic at the start of my lesson. This will make me aware of my students’ level, skills and ability. I would seek to include students from the start of my lesson. I will achieve this by asking open questions. I will also use more visual resources such as showing a video clip to support my teaching and to give my students a robust learning experience. I will cater for all learning needs and ability by breaking my class into smaller groups. I will also set activities that would enable peer assessment. In order to meet all learners’ needs, I will set differentiated tasks so that high ability students are challenged and stretched and lower ability students are motivated to catch up. While giving my presentation I was distracted a bit as I didn’t want to go over the time, but I realised my students need my full attention all through lessons. Finally I should also give assignments to students so they can carry out further research on topic taught. Book References: Gravells, A., 2012. Preparing to Teach in the Lifelong Learning Sector. 5th ed. London: Learning Matters. Gravells, A., 2012. Passing PTLLS Assessments 2nd ed. London: Learning Matters. Websites: www.cyberessays.com [last accessed 03/12/13 @ 12:50] www.studymode.com [last accessed 03/12/13 @ 12:50] GROUP D: Principle of assessment in lifelong learning 1.1 Analyse how types of assessment are used in lifelong learning. There are 3 types of assessment used in lifelong learning. They are: initial, formative and summative assessments. These assessments can either be formal or informal depending on the course or programme. Initial assessments are used before or at the beginning of a course or programme. An example of initial assessment could be to ascertain prior knowledge of a topic. This type of assessment is referred to as ‘skills check’ because it provides teachers or administrative staff the opportunity to identify the type of skills a learner has or does not have in order to determine student suitability for the specific course or programme of study. Where necessary, some learners might have to be referred to other courses which would cater to specific needs relating to dyslexia, ICT or language. Initial assessments can help the teacher diagnose preferred learning styles and help inform Individual Learning Plans (Gravells 2012:98) Formative assessment is a range of formal and informal assessment procedures employed by teachers during the learning process in order to modify teaching and learning activities to improve student attainment (Crooks,2001).In other words, formative assessment is an ongoing process to determine progress level of learners in relation to achieving the desired understanding of the study with the ultimate aim of developing students’ ability to self assess so that they develop the skills of self-evaluation necessary for lifelong learning.(Asghar,2008). Summative Assessment is usually carried out at the  end of a course or programme to confirm skills, knowledge or understanding. This could be in a form of test, assignment or an exam. Assessment task or activity will be either internal (produced by me or my organisation) or external (produced by the awarding organisation). The assessment criteria should always be designed to meet certain standards as it may lead to formal qualification, hence, the need to ensure that it conforms to (VACSR).It must be valid, authentic, current, sufficient and reliable. 1.2 Analyse how assessment methods are used in lifelong learning. Assessment types are different from assessment methods. A method is how the assessment type will be used and can be formal or informal. Formal methods count towards achievement of a qualification whereas informal method checks ongoing progress (Gravells, 2012:31). Assessment methods used in lifelong learning are assignments, observation, oral questions, puzzles and quizzes, essays, multiple choice tests, presentation etc. Assignment- This is used to assess knowledge and understanding Observation- This is used to see student perform a task or skill, putting theory into practice Oral question- A key technique for assessing understanding and stimulating thinking. This can be formal or informal. Puzzles and quizzes- A fun way of assessing learning in an informal way These methods give learners opportunities to demonstrate their subject knowledge, skills and attitudes. All assessment whether produced by me or others should be valid and reliable. Validity will ensure I am assessing what is meant to be assessed and reliability will ensure if the assessment was used again with a similar group of students, I will receive similar results. Quality assurance is usually carried out on most assessment whether internal or external to ensure fairness and consistency as well as validity and reliability. In order to ensure that the learner meet the expected national standard, I will administer formal assessments (practice tests) to help my students prepare for end of course assessments and to help them acclimatise to formal examination conditions. 1.3 Evaluate strengths and limitations of assessment methods to meet individual learning needs. There are large varieties of assessment methods available for assessing learners’ achievements. These include assignment, observation, oral questions, essays, multiple choice tests, presentation, puzzles and quizzes. Choosing the most  appropriate assessment methods is vitally important, in order to help and support the learner and to ensure the job of the assessor is as straightforward, reliable and problem-free as possible. In selecting methods of assessment the main aim is to choose methods that most effectively assess the objectives of the immediate area of study, whilst considering the broader aims of the programme. For example, the choice of assessment methods may include supporting the development of vocational competencies (such as team skills). There should be a carefully planned assessment strategy across any programme. It is not possible to use only a single assessment method to assess effectively. Assignment Strength Limitation Consolidates learning Several aspects of a qualification can be assesses (holistic assessment) Some assignments are set by the awarding Organization who will give clear marking criteria Everything must have been taught before hand Question can be misinterpreted if written by someone Can be time consuming Must be individually assessed and written feedback given Assessor might be biased when marking Observation Enables skills to be seen in action Students can make mistake(if it is safe) enabling them to realize their errors Can assess several aspects of qualification at the same time (holistic assessment) Timing must be arranged to suit each student No permanent record unless visually recorded Questions must be asked to confirm understanding Assessor might t not be objective with decision 2.1 Evaluate how to involve the learner in the assessment process. Involving learners in assessment is a conscious, organized decision which represents a paradigm shift in assessing practices and in ways that a curriculum is delivered to create optimal learning opportunities for learners. (Hazel-Yildrim & Lavender,2009) It could be that you have a learner who has achieved as aspect of a qualification or programme elsewhere depending upon the evidence they can produce in support of it, they might not have to respect some or all of the requirements (Gravells,2012a:62) Learners can be involved at the commencement of a session by asking them if they have any prior knowledge or skills of the topic to be covered. In this way I can draw and build upon their experience through the session. During the session, peer and group activities methods can be used. This will require peer and self assessment and actively involve my students; however I will need to ensure everyone was aware of the criteria to consider when carrying out the assessment and how to give feedback effectively. At the end of the session I could informally assess the knowledge gained by using a quiz. This would involve the students and end the session on a fun note. 2.2 Analyse the role of peer and self-assessment in the assessment process. Peer assessment involves a student assessing another student’s progress while self assessment involves students assessing their own progress which can lead to setting their own goals and targets. Both methods encourage students to make decisions about what had been learnt so far, and to reflect on aspect of further development. However both students and their peers might undervalue or overvalue their achievement. It’s important that students fully understand the assessment criteria, and how to be fair and objective with their judgement. Throughout the process of peer and self-assessment students can develop skills such as listening, observing and questioning. A simple introduction to the concept of peer feedback is to invite students to exchange lecture notes in the final segment of a class and to discuss perceived gaps and differences in understanding. This can be done on a regular basis and has many potential benefits. It gets students used to discussing their work with their peers, it can help to build a collaborative environment and it helps students to improve and enhance their understanding. Students are invited to complete a simple self assessment sheet according to agreed criteria and submit it with a completed  assessment. To extend the benefits of the exercise, students can be asked to explain why they evaluate themselves in particular ways. Students can be awarded a percentage for completing the assessment or graded for the quality of their rationale for their self-assessment. Studies that evaluated the use of a simple self-assessment component like this report a number of benefits. One of the most interesting is the feedback from students that the self-assessment requirement made them return regularly to the criteria as they were working on the assignment and keep checking their own performance against them (Andrade & Du, 2007, p.166). This heightened engagement with the implications of criteria can help deepen students‟ understanding of what constitutes quality learning. 3.1 Explain the need to keep records of assessment of learning. As a teacher, it is important for me to keep an up to date record of students’ assessment as this enables both me and my students to keep track of their achievement. It can also be used for internal and external audit during inspection or appraisal exercise and for question and answers purposes. Having these records also enables student to re-assess their learning and note progress made over time. Records indicate clearly what has been taught, the progress of the course, and helps identify the learners who need more help. Records tell us the complete history of the student through their course cycle, thereby facilitating proper guidance and support wherever necessary. It also provides information needed on ex-students by higher institutions or employers. It facilitates the supply of information to parents, effective monitoring of progress of learners, data needed for planning and decision making by service providers. It also enables the service provider to collate information for decision making by law courts, security agencies and other government agencies, when needed The different types of records maintained are: action plans, assessment plans, assessment feedback, assessment tracking, assessment decisions and grades, diagnostics test results, individual learning plans, risk assessment, scheme of work and syllabus or qualification handbook. 3.2 Summarise the requirements for keeping records of assessment in an organisation. Keeping records of assessment in an organisation is important as it always serves as a reference resource in times of dispute. Records can be electronic or manual and should be kept for a minimum of three years. Some records such as personal details are kept by the Admin team while assessment records are  kept me the teacher, or kept centrally by the department in a secure place and also stored electronically. Internal assessment materials are stored within the organisation but externally assessed materials are usually in the custody of awarding bodies. This can be made available on request to the school or student. There are many other organisations and individuals (employers, awarding bodies, admission tutors) who need to know about the achievement of our learners for a variety of reasons (Tummons, 2011:74). Data Protection Act of 1998 which was amended in 2003 to include electronic data offers c lear guidelines on how to handle information relation to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such information. Book References: Gravells, A., 2012. Preparing to Teach in the Lifelong Learning Sector. 5th ed. London: Learning Matters. Gravells, A., 2012. Passing PTLLS Assessments 2nd ed. London: Learning Matters. Tummons, J (2011) Assessing Learning in Lifelong Learning Sector 3rd ed Exeter: Learning Matters Cowley,S 2010 Teaching Skills for Dummies Kindle Edition UK Edition Websites: www.cyberessays.com [last accessed 03/12/13 @ 12:50] www.studymode.com [last accessed 03/12/13 @ 12:50] Data Protection Act (2003) http://regulatorylaw.co.uk/Data_Protection_Act_2003.html